Area: approx. 1,688,800 sq. miles, slightly less than four times the size of Texas
Population: 16,763,795 (2003 est.)
Population Growth Rate: 0.17% (2003 est.)
Annual Inflation: 6% (2002 est.)
Gross Domestic Product (GDP): $120 billion (purchasing power parity, 2002 est.)
Life Expectancy: male - 58.16 years, female - 69.06 years (2003 est.)
GDP Per Capita: $7,200 (purchasing power parity, 2002 est.)
Infant Mortality: 58.73 deaths/1,000 live births (2003 est.)
Real Annual GDP Growth: 9.5% (2002 est.)
U.S. STRATEGIC INTERESTS
Kazakhstan is playing a major role in the Global War on Terrorism. Since September 11, 2001, the Government of Kazakhstan has provided unlimited overflight rights for U.S. aircraft, waiving fees on more than 1,000 flights in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF). In August 2003, the Kazakhstani Government sent a 27-member engineering contingent to assist in reconstruction efforts in Iraq. For the past decade, under a Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) Umbrella Agreement, Kazakhstan has been a model nation in its non-proliferation activities. Shortly after its independence, Kazakhstan, which had a nuclear arsenal larger than Britain and France combined, agreed to destroy its Soviet-era ICBM infrastructure and become a non-nuclear state. Since then, it has worked with the U.S. Government (USG) to eliminate and, as necessary, secure the formidable weapons of mass destruction (WMD) facilities and materials it inherited from the Soviet Union. U.S. oil and gas companies have invested billions of dollars to develop Kazakhstan's massive Caspian Sea energy resources, which have the potential of contributing directly to U.S. energy security. Participation by the Kazakhstani Government in the Aktau-Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil transport system will also provide a major new outlet for Caspian energy to world markets. The USG promotes democratic and market reform in Kazakhstan in an effort to bolster stability and prosperity in the key region of Central Asia.
OVERVIEW OF U.S. GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE
In FY 2003, the U.S. Government provided an estimated $112.93 million* in assistance to Kazakhstan:
In FY 2003, some 465 Kazakhstani citizens traveled to the United States on USG-funded training and exchange programs implemented by USAID and the U.S. Departments of Agriculture, Commerce and State, bringing the cumulative number of Kazakhstani participants to over 4,570.
U.S. ASSISTANCE PRIORITIES
Democratic Reform Programs: The USG is committed to assisting the small, but highly motivated, group of citizens and local non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that is working to advance democratic reform in Kazakhstan. The USG's priorities for democracy assistance include strengthening and developing civil society, support and advocacy for independent media, training for political parties, and civic education. USG-funded assistance programs have also focused on encouraging the Kazakhstani Government to pass an electoral law compliant with Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) standards in time for the key 2004 parliamentary elections. USG assistance and vigorous public affairs efforts helped Kazakhstan take key steps to combat trafficking in persons, efforts that helped Kazakhstan move from Tier 3 to Tier 2 in an interim assessment to Congress after the release of the State Department's annual Global Trafficking in Persons Report.
Economic and Social-Sector Reform Programs: In FY 2003, USG-funded economic reform programs in Kazakhstan focused on small and medium-sized enterprise (SME) development, general business skill development and financial sector strengthening. Despite favorable trends in these areas and a boost in foreign investment, further reforms are needed to advance SME growth and the development of a robust middle class, and to facilitate Kazakhstan's integration into the global economy in order to ensure sustained, broad-based economic growth and stability. In the social sector, the development of primary health-care services, tuberculosis treatment and HIV/AIDS surveillance were top priorities for USG assistance efforts. USG-funded technical assistance helped Kazakhstan obtain a $22.4 million grant for HIV/AIDS from the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria. USG-funded environmental programs focused on improving information collection on the environmental protection elements in offshore leasing tenders in the oil and gas sectors.
Security, Regional Stability and Law Enforcement Programs: In FY 2003, USG-funded security assistance programs in Kazakhstan focused on strengthening U.S.-Kazakhstani military interoperability in waging the Global War on Terrorism and cooperating in international peacekeeping operations and NATO Partnership for Peace activities. USG assistance also focused on reducing the proliferation threat posed by Soviet-era nuclear, chemical and biological expertise and infrastructure. With U.S. Defense Department nuclear dismantlement projects successfully completed, USG efforts now address biological and chemical threats through the dismantlement and securing of dual-use biological facilities and stockpiles. Additional USG priorities are conducting biological-weapons detection response workshops and funding research by former weapons scientists to combat the very activities they engaged in during Soviet times. Other programs helped strengthen Kazakhstan's maritime and land borders against WMD proliferation, international terrorist activities, and the smuggling of narcotics and trafficking in persons.
SECTORAL ASSESSSMENTS
Democratic Reform
In 2003, Kazakhstan's progress toward democracy was uneven, despite the government's stated commitment to human rights, democracy, and the rule of law. Journalists, opposition leaders, and civil society activists have been targeted in the government's attempt to maintain control over society. In 2002, outspoken journalist Sergey Duvanov was arrested and convicted for the rape of a minor in a trial that lacked due process, although he was granted parole at the end of 2003. Other journalists also faced government harassment. One opposition leader remained jailed, while another was pardoned. The prominent political movement, the Democratic Choice of Kazakhstan, was unable to renew its registration.
The pace of development of Kazakhstan's independent media sector remained at a standstill in FY 2003. International organizations, the USG and local media outlets are monitoring the Kazakhstani Government's efforts to pass a new media law, which would further restrict independent media outlets. The draft legislation, which passed Parliament's lower house in late 2003, has been criticized by freedom-of-speech advocates and mainstream journalists' associations alike. The USG assisted media associations and media monitoring groups, provided equipment grants to non-state television and radio broadcasters and newspapers, and supported media advocacy activities focused on the proposed restrictive media law. A television station in Almaty that has received significant USG training developed a nascent national network and continues to broadcast more hard-hitting news and investigative reporting than any other nationwide television station.
In 2003, a new law was passed restricting registration of political parties. USG-funded non-partisan training helped political parties develop their constituency outreach, articulate their platforms, and campaign more effectively. While the 2003 local elections were marred by government interference and intimidation, USG assistance enabled political parties to field substantial campaigns across the country.
The USG supported efforts for independent monitoring of the December 2002 parliamentary by-elections. Following the flawed 2002 by-elections and 2003 local elections, the Kazakhstani Government worked closely with the OSCE / Office of Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR) to produce a new electoral law compatible with international standards. While the version introduced into parliament in November 2003 falls short of this mark, parliamentarians have been making changes in the government's draft that are bringing it closer to international standards. Observers are cautiously optimistic that Kazakhstan will have improved electoral legislation in place before the campaign season begins.
A group of civil society leaders and organizations are working hard to promote democracy and advance citizen interests. To boost their efforts, in FY 2003, the USG launched a three-year program of support to civil society, including funding for resource centers, institutional grants, legal support, and community mobilization. USG-funded technical assistance designed to promote social partnerships that bring together NGOs, businesses and government officials to achieve common goals has motivated the Kazakhstani Government to work with the country's NGOs. NGOs that have benefited from USG assistance are working with the Government of Kazakhstan to draft legislation on social partnerships that would enable government entities to contract with NGOs to carry out programs on their behalf. In October 2003, an intense lobbying campaign by a coalition of over 200 NGOs, mobilized by the USG-supported network of resource centers, resulted in President Nazarbayev's public withdrawal of a restrictive draft NGO law from parliamentary consideration. The USG also provided assistance to NGOs that launched a campaign to end corruption in the university system.
The USG supported debate clubs, students' local government days, democracy summer camps, student action committees, and democracy tournaments for 1,150 students during FY 2003. According to a recent survey, as a result of a USG-funded civic education textbook and curriculum reform program for tenth and eleventh graders, more than 80 percent of participating students better understand democratic principles, and 84% have applied their knowledge to solve local issues in their community.
A USG-funded local government program is beginning to have an impact on cities' strategic planning capabilities. All 15 cities in two pilot regions instituted broad-based councils to develop strategic plans for their cities. Kazakhstan's Ministry of Economy and Budget Planning is viewing this approach as a tool to be used nationwide for small cities. Five out of 15 cities in the pilot regions organized public hearings to discuss strategic planning, environmental, and public order issues. USG-funded conflict prevention efforts focused in Southern Kazakhstan and Zhambul Oblasts, where conflict vulnerability is most evident, and where reports of extremist activity are most prevalent. Activities were under way in 12 communities, in which residents have carried out a total of 21 projects such as repairing health clinics, water systems and schools, in order to alleviate local tensions.
In cooperation with the USG, the Government of Kazakhstan convened high-level meetings and roundtables to discuss the problem of trafficking in persons and to develop programs to address this problem. With USG assistance, the government developed a draft national plan of action for combating trafficking in humans and is building the capacity to lead nationwide anti-trafficking efforts. The Kazakhstani Government now runs its own anti-trafficking information campaign, actively investigates trafficking crimes, and works closely with NGOs to protect victims of trafficking.
In FY 2003, USG assistance helped develop a cadre of aspiring young lawyers with strong critical thinking and advocacy skills. Through moot court competitions, mock trials, "street law" programs, and an innovative legal reasoning class, 1,260 Kazakhstani law students learned how to prepare legal briefs, develop oral arguments, conduct legal research, and examine witnesses.
In FY 2004, USG-funded democracy assistance will emphasize support for free and fair parliamentary elections, including increased non-partisan political party training, work with NGOs on civic advocacy, media training, and NGO get-out-the-vote initiatives. The USG will support a training program for Kazakhstani human rights defenders to improve their ability to advocate on human rights issues. A new judicial reform program will focus on providing continuing legal education to sitting judges, increasing transparency of the judiciary by disseminating judicial decisions, piloting a court recording program, and improving legal education. USG assistance efforts will also seek to strengthen the independent media and support efforts to bring the draft media law into compliance with international standards. A new exchange program with the International Center for the Freedom of Journalists will train journalists in Almaty and regional capitals. In its final year, the USG-funded local government program will provide support to small cities on economic development issues.
Economic and Social-Sector Reform
Primarily due to its wealth of natural resources, Kazakhstan's growth has remained steady and is proving to be important to its Central Asian neighbors as they increasingly look to Kazakhstan as a leading market for their goods. GDP growth was 9% in 2002, but is expected to slow down to 7% in 2003. Despite earlier disputes over taxes paid by the largest oil consortium in the country, TengizChevrOil, and the delay in the development of the Kashagan offshore field, Kazakhstan's main source of revenue continues to be the oil and gas sector. These revenues are forecasted to increase 11%, on average, between 2001 and 2005. However, if Kazakhstan is to distribute the benefits of economic growth more equitably among the population and create a broader tax base, it will have to diversify its economy more and decrease its heavy dependence on oil.
USG-funded economic development assistance focuses on SME development. In FY 2003, the 168 firms that received business and trade advisory services increased their sales by 40% and productivity by 24% and created 734 jobs. The 750 accountants trained in a USG-funded accounting reform program are now eligible to be certified in International Accounting Standards. USG-funded programs also sought to improve the legal and regulatory environment for SMEs by working with the public and private sector in five cities to gather information on problematic legal procedures and to reduce costly and duplicative steps required by those procedures. Kazakhstani Government and private-sector representatives came together in a series of roundtables to discuss and make recommendations for an improved process for acquiring land and obtaining building permits. These discussions resulted in the adoption of a streamlined permit process by the City of Almaty, a process that was subsequently adopted nationwide with the support of the Ministry of Trade and Industry. The resulting nationwide savings to enterprises in terms of time and money is estimated to be $35 million annually.
The USG's work with the National Bank to strengthen bank supervision and banks' capacity to assess credit risk contributed significantly to the strength of Kazakhstan's financial sector. Banking deposits continued to grow in FY 2003, with total deposits estimated at 17.44% of GDP, up from 16.09% in 2002. In late 2002, Moody's gave Kazakhstan a "Baa" rating, making it the first former Soviet republic to receive an investment-grade rating.
The USG also supported the growth of primary and secondary mortgage markets. Residential and commercial mortgage lending has surpassed $200 million, a $160 million increase from a cumulative total of $40 million at the end of FY 2002. Mortgage rates have declined from 27% in 1999 to 14% last year. USG-funded technical assistance and USAID Development Credit Authority facilitated the first issue of $4.5 million in mortgage-backed securities. This financial instrument helped privatized pension funds diversify their portfolios and enabled the issuing banks to expand their mortgage portfolio.
Among the USG's priorities in market reform is Kazakhstan's adoption of an open trade regime consistent with World Trade Organization (WTO) principles. In FY 2003, the Government of Kazakhstan adopted a new Customs Code, which is mostly compliant with WTO-related requirements, with the exception of provisions related to customs valuation. The Code also incorporates a foundation for risk management, due diligence, and other modern principles. However, unpredictable and corrupt practices of local officials and customs representatives have severely restricted the flow of goods from the Kyrgyz Republic, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan - goods that need to transit Kazakhstan to reach the Russian market. Future USG-funded assistance will include educating customs officials, business associations, and entrepreneurs on the new Customs Code and international best practices to reduce trade barriers.
Approximately 41.5% of Kazakhstan's population currently has access to pilot sites under the USG-funded primary health care program, which provides a greater range of choice in personal physicians at lower costs. Major finance reforms achieved in FY 2003 strengthened the financial basis of Kazakhstan's health care system. The first HIV study was completed on injecting drug users and prostitutes. At one site, one in every four drug users were found to be HIV-positive, raising serious concerns about the potential for spread of HIV into the general population. To help the Kazakhstani Government better document and track the problem, USAID and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) are establishing four "sentinel" sites in the country to collect additional reliable data. Joint efforts by the U.S. and Kazakhstani Governments have resulted in the decrease of tuberculosis (TB) mortality by 37% from 38.4 per 100,000 in 1998 to 24.2 per 100,000 in 2002. USAID has contributed extensively to training personnel in TB facilities - 609 medical personnel were trained in 2003 - and is developing projects to combat Kazakhstan's serious multi-drug-resistant TB problem.
The USG funded technical assistance and training for the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources to introduce greater transparency in the tendering process for rights to offshore oil blocks. With the endorsement of the private sector and the Kazakhstani Government, the USG also assisted the Ministry with the development of an oil and gas database that will improve public and government access to information. Continued USG-funded assistance strengthened Kazakhstan's regional weather and water forecasting system. With the benefit of an automated regional information database, issues on water sharing can be more effectively addressed, thus reducing the likelihood of conflict over water resources.
Security, Regional Stability, and Law Enforcement
Equipment provided by the Export Control and Related Border Security (EXBS) Program has had a positive but somewhat limited impact on the prevention of smuggling of illicit materials and trafficking in persons, due to the sheer immensity of the border area. Additional equipment will be required to help improve control across Kazakhstan's extensive borders. In order to maximize results from the EXBS Program, the Ministry of Defense and the U.S. Embassy's Security Assistance Office developed a five-year plan of specific reform objectives and goals as a tool to focus and coordinate USG assistance to the Kazakhstani Armed Forces. The plan will focus bilateral defense activities on strengthening Kazakhstan's defensive capabilities to ensure its national security, further regional stability, and strengthen Kazakhstan's interoperability with U.S. and NATO forces in fighting the Global War on Terrorism and conducting other cooperative activities.
International Military Education and Training (IMET) and Foreign Military Financing (FMF) programs have begun to have a significant impact on Kazakhstan's Ministry of Defense. Kazakhstani IMET graduates are working in Iraq with U.S. forces, as liaison officers at NATO Headquarters, and in many branches of the Kazakhstani Government. Some have moved to the private sector and are now working with U.S. businesses investing in Kazakhstan. In the past 18 months, the USG has begun to deliver the first significant military equipment since the beginning of FMF assistance to Kazakhstan in 1997. The Kazakhstani Government's decision to support the U.S. Coalition in Iraq with a force of engineers is a sign of Kazakhstan's growing confidence in its military relationship with the United States.
Shortly following its independence, Kazakhstan made an early and active commitment to achieve nuclear-weapons-free status and become a leader in the field of nonproliferation. Even after divesting itself of its nuclear arsenal, Kazakhstan remains a top priority country within the region for USG-funded nonproliferation assistance, due to its remaining Soviet-era infrastructure and WMD-related expertise. U.S. Defense Department programs continue to engage scientists, provide biological-weapons detection and response workshops, and help consolidate and secure dangerous pathogen collections. Within the past year, the Bio-Chem Redirect Program has shifted its primary emphasis in Kazakhstan from initial engagement of former biological weapons scientists to assisting institutes and scientists towards commercially viable and sustainable activities. In addition, the USG engages senior Kazakhstani weapons scientists through the multilateral International Science and Technology Center (ISTC), fostering peaceful commercial scientific research in areas important to both the United States and Kazakhstan.
During FY 2003, U.S.-Kazakhstani cooperation on law enforcement moved forward with the posting of a regional law enforcement assistance officer at the U.S. Embassy in Almaty and the approval of a joint U.S-Kazakhstani Government plan of action. The USG trained approximately 140 Kazakhstani law enforcement officials in both local and regional venues. The USG also developed the Southern Kazakhstan Border Project, which is co-funded by the European Union and implemented by the International Organization for Migration (IOM) and is designed to combat the smuggling of narcotics out of Afghanistan and trafficking in persons across Kazakhstan's southern border. USG-developed projects with the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) have also attracted significant funding from other donors. Counter-narcotics officers from throughout the region meet and share ideas at the semi-annual meetings of the Foreign Anti-Narcotics Community (FANC).
COUNTRY PERFORMANCE MEASURES
Progress was limited in democratic reforms in FY 2003, as the Government of Kazakhstan restricted media freedom and cracked down on political opposition. Nevertheless, a small but active civic society achieved some successes in affecting government policies. Meanwhile, macroeconomic reforms advanced and economic growth was strong.
Economic Policy Reforms and Democratic Reforms in Kazakhstan, 1991-2002 
Democratic Reforms
Ratings of democratic freedoms are from Freedom House, Nations in Transit 2003 (2003) and cover events through December 2002. Economic policy reform ratings are from EBRD, Transition Report 2002 (November 2002), and cover events through September 2002. Economic policy reforms include price liberalization, trade and foreign exchange, privatization, legal, banking and capital markets, enterprise restructuring (credit and subsidy policy), and infrastructure reforms. Democratic freedoms include political rights (free and fair elections; openness of the political system to competing political parties and to minority group representation; governance and public administration) and civil liberties (free media and judiciary; freedom to develop NGOs and trade unions; equality of opportunity and freedom from corruption). Ratings are based on a 1 to 5 scale, with 5 representing most advanced.
In FY 2003, Kazakhstan made significant strides toward becoming a full-fledged market economy. However, economic growth was concentrated in the oil and gas sector, with the benefits not contributing to raising the general standard of living in the country.
Economic Structure and Human Development in Kazakhstan, 1991-2002 
Human Development Index
The Human Development Index (HDI) is based on three indicators using 2001 data: longevity, as measured by life expectancy; educational attainment, as measured by a combination of adult literacy and combined primary, secondary and tertiary enrollment ratios; and standard of living, as measured by real per capita GDP ($PPP). The HDI ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values representing greater human development. UNDP, Human Development Report 2003 (July 2003). Economic Structure is based on an average rating of three variables scored on a 1 to 10 scale: private sector share of GDP, export share of GDP, and SME employment as % of total employment. EBRD, Transition Report Update (May 2003), World Bank, World Development Indicators 2003 (2003), and Ayyagari, Beck, and Demirguc-Kunt, Small and Medium Enterprises across the Globe: A New Database, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3127, (August 2003).
SECTORAL PERFORMANCE MEASURES
DEMOCRATIC REFORM
Performance Indicator: USAID NGO Sustainability Index (1 = highest; 7 = lowest)
|
FY 2002 Baseline |
FY 2003 Target |
FY 2003 Actual |
|
4.1 |
3.9 (preliminary) |
FY 2003 Results: Advocacy capacity within civil society strengthened and was demonstrated in a strong show of opposition to the proposed NGO law, causing President Nazarbayev to withdraw it from consideration.
Performance Indicator: Freedom House's Nations in Transit 2003 Independent Media rating
(1 = highest, 7 = lowest; data based on previous calendar year)
|
FY 2002 Baseline |
FY 2003 Target |
FY 2003 Actual |
|
6.00 |
6.25 |
FY 2003 Results: Harassment of critics of the national government and strong measures to control independent media continue to stifle opposition.
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL-SECTOR REFORM
Performance Indicator: Estimated Banking Deposits as percent of GDP. Source: National Bank
|
FY 2002 Baseline |
FY 2003 Target |
FY 2003 Actual |
|
16.09 |
17.44 |
SECURITY, REGIONAL STABILITY, AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
Performance Indicators:
Organizational/legal/doctrinal reforms undertaken that support of U.S. objectives:
FY 2003 FUNDS BUDGETED FOR U.S. GOVERNMENT ASSISTANCE TO KAZAKHSTAN
TOTAL USG FUNDS BUDGETED: $100.43
VALUE OF DONATED HUMANITARIAN COMMODITIES: $9.77
TOTAL FY 2003 USG ASSISTANCE: $110.20
(IN MILLIONS, AS OF 12/31/03)
FSA FUNDS BUDGETED: $43.42
USAID - Democratic Reform - $5.75
USAID - Environmental Management - $2.41
USAID - Parking Fine Withholding - $0.01
USAID - Private-Sector Initiatives - $13.68
USAID - Social-Sector Reform - $6.47
USAID - Special/Cross Cutting Initiatives - $2.36
USAID - x Eurasia Foundation - $0.92
USAID TOTAL - $31.59
Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) - Cochran Fellowship Program - $0.16
Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) - Faculty Exchange Program (FEP) - $0.08
DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) TOTAL - $0.24
Dept. of Commerce - BISNIS Business Info. Service - $0.10
Dept. of Commerce - SABIT Business Internships/Training - $0.50
DEPT. OF COMMERCE TOTAL - $0.60
Dept. of State - ECA Public Diplomacy Exchanges - $4.97
Dept. of State - EUR Democracy Programs (incl.Dem.Comms.& NED) - $0.47
Dept. of State - EUR/ACE Humanitarian Transport - $0.50
Dept. of State - Export Control & Related Border Security (EXBS) - $1.75
Dept. of State - INL Law Enforcement - $1.00
DEPT. OF STATE TOTAL - $8.74
Dept. of Energy - Nuclear Reactor Safety - $0.99
NSF - Civilian R&D Foundation (CRDF) - $0.57
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) - Nuclear Reactor Safety - $0.68
OTHER FUNDS BUDGETED: $57.02
Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) - Bio-Chem Redirect - $1.07
DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE (USDA) TOTAL - $1.07
Dept. of State - DRL Human Rights & Democracy Fund - $0.40
Dept. of State - ECA Public Diplomacy Exchanges - $1.39
Dept. of State - Export Control & Related Border Security (EXBS) - $1.90
Dept. of State - Foreign Military Financing (FMF) - $2.90
Dept. of State - International Information Programs (IIP) - $0.03
Dept. of State - Internatl. Military Educ. & Training (IMET) - $0.87
Dept. of State - PRM Humanitarian Assistance - $0.50
Dept. of State - Science Centers - $2.00
DEPT. OF STATE TOTAL - $9.99
Dept. of Defense - Destruction and Dismantlement - $19.40
Dept. of Defense - International Counterproliferation - $1.20
Dept. of Defense - Warsaw Initiative - $0.69
DEPT. OF DEFENSE TOTAL - $21.29
Dept. of Education - Fulbright-Hays Exchange Programs - $0.03
Dept. of Energy - Materials Protection, Control & Acct. (MPC&A) - $5.50
Dept. of Energy - Nonproliferation & Internat'l. Security - $9.80
Dept. of Energy - Nuclear Reactor Safety - $1.40
Dept. of Energy - Russian Transition Initiatives (RTI) - $1.00
Dept. of Health & Human Services (HHS) - Bio-Chem Redirect - $1.00
Dept. of Labor - Labor Programs - $2.70
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Bio-Chem Redirect - $1.00
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) - Environmental Programs - $0.04
Peace Corps - Volunteers - $2.21
